Introduction 

In her essay "Images of Power and the Power of Images," published in 1998 in the exhibition catalogue Royal Persian Paintings: The Qajar Epoch, 1782-1925, the scholar Layla Diba wrote about Persian imperial imagery of the time:

Images of the ruler, in myriad forms, sizes, and media, played an integral role in nineteenth-century exercise of power, both at home and abroad . . . Above all, life-size paintings acted as portable vehicles projecting the image of Qajar authority abroad, and were in this way similar to the portraits exchanged between European rulers from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.1

In light of Diba's remarks on the power embedded in portraits, this paper argues that the Qajar dress worn by the young James Justinian Morier (c. 1780-1849) in the portrait attributed to George Henry Harlow (Fig. 1) in the Columbia University art collection, allowed the sitter -- a member of the wealthy European elite -- to both embrace and show control over Persia, present-day Iran. The analysis of the portrait, currently dated 1818, developed in this essay draws heavily on the published works of Diba, as well as on the unmatched insight into Qajar culture and dress that she provided during a phone interview conducted on April 4, 2018, as well as on the occasion of her visit to Columbia on April 26, 2018, to view the Morier portrait.

For the purpose of this analysis, it is important to have a shared understanding of the term “Orientalism." Edward Said's definition remains the most useful:

Orientalism can be discussed and analyzed as the corporate institution for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authorizing views of it, describing it, by teaching it, settling it, ruling over it: in short, Orientalism as a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient.2

In the case of the Morier portrait, this paper argues that the choice of Qajar dress allowed the sitter to be both himself and his alter (i.e., Eastern) ego, and therefore safely experience the unfamiliar. While Morier’s dress functions in an Orientalist fashion in the portrait, it also appears to have had a practical role in his real life experience: as a British diplomat traveling through Persia, Morier adopted Qajar clothing in order to alleviate the shock of his presence in the region. In his words, it acted as a "disguise" of sorts so that he, a foreign visitor, could explore and observe his surroundings more freely, as Yixu Chen discusses in her essay, "Encounter with a Dreamland". On the other hand, the act of displaying himself in Qajar dress in his portrait, especially against a background so vaguely exotic, reveals an Orientalist dimension common in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century portraits of European travelers.

Qajar Persian Dress in Context

In An Introduction to Qajar Era Dress, Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood states: “Qajar Iran saw the sensational mixture of Persian cultural heritage with influences from Russia and Western Europe erupt into a renaissance of Persian creativity.”3
 However, when analyzing the Morier portrait, it is important to consider not only the Eastern and Western cultures of the time, but also how Morier appropriated Persian dress in ways that are both in line with Qajar standards and that break away from them. 

Vogelsang-Eastwood’s study is helpful to identify the different components of Morier's dress in the Columbia portrait. At first glance, Morier seems to be wearing the typical dress of Persian men at the end of the eighteenth century. This style consisted of loose trousers (shalvar) and a shirt (pirahan) (Fig. 2). Over the pirahan, a fitted tunic called a qaba (also spelled aba in certain writings) is worn and kept in place by a sash (kamarband). Finally, a robe called an arkaloq or kordi is worn over the other pieces of clothing. In general, the Morier portrait matches this description of Persian dress. Although the shalvar is not featured considering that it is a three-quarter portrait, one can see the white pirahan-like garment peeking from beneath the red tunic, as well as a deep purple qaba, all held together by a sketchily painted kamarband with hints of brocade. As Diba observed, the red tunic was a common component of Qajar dress, and is rendered by Harlow with great accuracy. Indeed, tunics featured pointy and brocaded details at the extremity of the sleeves, as shown in the Morier portrait. By contrast, the deep purple color of his qaba is unusual, and navy or dark green were much more common. Finally, as Diba also noted, the ring on Morier’s right pinky finger, possibly featuring a turquoise stone, was “likely part of the Oriental garb that Morier would have acquired during his sojourn.”4
 

During the Qajar period, men’s outfits also typically included some headwear, either in the form of a turban or a cone-shaped cap (kolah).5
In the Columbia portrait, Morier wears a furry black coned headdress -- most likely astrakhan -- that includes a center piece at the apex of the cap made of a red fabric with a sheen  -- perhaps velvet or satin. The general design of Morier's headdress matches actual examples of kolah from the period.6
 For example, the same style of cap is featured on the photograph portrait of Muhammad Shah Qajar, King of Persia from the Qajar dynasty from 1834 to 1848 (Fig. 3). 

The material of Morier's cap is important to note. Astrakhan is a type of lambskin mostly found in Central Asia. As the pelts are sourced from very young Karakul sheep (often from fetal lambs that have been induced early or miscarried), the material itself is both rare and expensive, making the kolah a sign of status. The use of astrakhan in the clothing of upper-class individuals has continued from nineteenth-century Persia through today, where it is often used in haute couture alongside other exclusive furs like ermine and rabbit. Morier’s choice to wear a kolah of this material in his portrait indicates his desire to represent himself as a man of power, all through the trappings of an Eastern identity.  

Morier: A Man in Costume

Vogelsang-Eastwood notes that at the beginning of the nineteenth century, i.e., when the Morier portrait was painted, Persian men tended to keep their hair long so that it curled at the nape of the neck and fell in side locks around the edges of the face.7
 Morier’s hair falls to the sides of his face, which could be interpreted as an attempt to follow the Persian trends for longer side-locks. However, in comparison with a later portrait of him featuring similar styling (Fig. 4) , it seems more likely that this was simply a preference of his, regardless of cultural context. 

Breaking away from Eastern standards, Morier is notably without facial hair. Facial hair was a bodily embellishment that was a staple of nineteenth-century Persian culture and in the period typically consisted of full and bushy moustaches above the cheeks, that were themselves either cleanly shaved or heavily bearded. As Persian men were “very concerned about the appearance of their hair, especially their beards”8
 this is an important aspect of Eastern dress omitted in the Morier portrait. One can speculate that Morier chose not to fully present himself in a Qajar manner in order to maintain a hint of his European identity beneath his costume. Perhaps he kept his face clean-shaven in the portrait to emphasize his youthfulness (he was only in his thirties at the time of the painting), or perhaps it is simply how he appeared in reality. He is also without a mustache or a beard in later portraits, suggesting that it was most likely an enduring decision regardless of his chosen costume.

Morier's beardless face accentuates his European presence in the portrait. Although garbed in Qajar dress, Morier is clearly portrayed as a Caucasian man. In the words of Diba, the “combination of the Qajar dress and Morier’s Caucasian features” creates a “jarring impression” on the viewer, who, in turn, “perceives that the sitter does not quite know how to wear the costume.”9
 In particular, as noted by Diba, he wears his kolah at a slight angle, whereas it was usually worn straight. Though obviously wearing the costume, Morier also seems ignorant of the cultural minutiae associated with Qajar dress. According to Diba, this indicates a misunderstanding of or disinterest in the practice of wearing a cap of such stature or that the European painter was unsure of how to paint the unusual cap onto Morier's head. In addition, Diba points out the minute detail of a "slightly-too-formal" European style shirt peeking out from beneath Morier's red tunic -- another hint that the viewer is looking at a man wearing a costume that is not "natural" to him. This artificial combination of the man and the clothing reads as though Morier may be literate in Persian culture, but only to a certain extent.

This effect is reinforced by the portrait's background, which is notably generic, suggesting Persia but without truly representing it. As Diba observed, the view features palm trees, a type of flora not typically seen in Iran considering its arid climate, and that allows the painter to evoke the idea/fantasy of the oasis. Similarly, the architecture on the right is definitively more Indian than Persian or Ottoman,10
 while the balustrade is decidedly Western and the Victory-style column a structure commonly seen in British architecture.11
 

The imaginary landscape pairs well with the irregularities of Morier’s dress, and taken together, these elements create a painting that is first and foremost an Orientalist fantasy, where the sitter performs in a costume. While the basic components of Morier’s outfit are authentic, neither the bearing nor the way it is worn are quite accurate.12
 Even the carpet draped over the table and resting beneath Morier’s right arm is generically Oriental, again whispering the Western idea of Persia. 

Persian Styles, Persian Portraits

Many items of Morier’s dress are present in the Portrait of Muhammad Shah Qajar, King of Persia (Fig. 5) by Persian artist Muhammad Hasan Afshar from Tehran or Tabriz. This portrait was completed around 1835-36, i.e., about two decades after the Columbia Morier portrait. Muhammad Shah Qajar wears a white pirahan, an emerald green qaba, and a black kolah fitted with white feathers and beads for ornamentation. However, unlike Morier, the sitter wears a large gemstone, as well as weaponry. This indicates a difference in what each sitter wished to convey about his identity. The gem and conspicuous placement of a dagger, sword, and pistol around the Persian King may have been intended to showcase his wealth, power, and military ability, whereas Morier, portrayed holding a book, presents himself as a scholar.

The Qajar Period began in 1786 and brought with it peace and stability; affording Persia the opportunity to focus on the arts, public works, and cultural progression:

The coronation of Aqa Muhammad Khan in 1785 ushered in a period of political stability, lasting more than a century, that was characterized by a revival of cultural and artistic life. The visual arts flourished, particularly under the long reigns of Fath ‘Ali Shah (1798—1834) and his grandson . . . The consolidation of Qajar power and the establishment of the dynasty from the 1780s onward was accompanied by spectacular growth.13

One of the main results of the relative stability in Iran that began with the establishment of Qajar rule by Aqa Muhammad Khan Qajar in 1786 was increased contact between Persian and European diplomats, military personnel, technical and educated experts, merchants, archaeologists, and travelers.14
Perhaps the inclusion of the King’s traditional weapons spoke to his military prowess, while the inclusion of a Western style pistol willed the viewer to recall the increased relations with the West.

Morier’s portrait could have been intended to work similarly. While the sitter is not adorned with gems and jewelry, Harlow embroiders Morier’s qaba with gold thread -- a subtle nod to his wealthy status. Furthermore, while Morier is not surrounded with daggers, swords, or pistols, as is the Muhammad Shah Qajar, he does hold a large book in his left hand and rests his right on a piece of paper. At current, the book Morier holds in the portrait is thought to  be a possible reference to Euclid's Elements of Geometry. Since Western mathematics are based on Arab mathematics, this could be an allusion to the relationship between the East and West.15
 Morier’s portrait, though portraying him in Qajar dress, still makes attempts to convey to the viewer those aspects of Morier’s identity he must have deemed important: those of a scholar.

Orientalism: East Meets West

Aware of the basic aspects of Qajar dress, the question still remains: how should we, as viewers, understand Morier's choice to present himself in Qajar costume? The reality of this questions is that the answer is yet unknown. With no primary sources written by Morier that specifically interact with his participation in the costuming customs of Qajar culture, his exact intent in "dressing up" evades us. For now it is this: the Qajar dress featured in James Justinian Morier's portrait is without a doubt a marker of his appreciation for Persia and its people. To envelop himself so visibly in the attributes of Qajar Persia is Morier's way of displaying his cultural connoisseurship, a fine-tuned understanding built up over his many years of travel. However, as with any interloper in a foreign place, some of the finer points of dress seem lost on Morier. A misplaced tilt of a cap, an English style collar, and misinterpreted architecture--all betray Morier's disguise. These small missteps remind the viewer that, although Morier looks the part of a Qajar Persian, he is still very much an Englishman.

• 1Layla S. Diba, Royal Persian Paintings: The Qajar Epoch, 1785-1925 ed. Layla S. Diba with Maryam Ekhtiar (London: I.B. Tauris in association with Brooklyn Museum of Art, 1998), 31-40.
• 2Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), 11.
• 3Gillian Vogelsang-Eastwood, An Introduction to Qajar Era Dress (Rottendam: Barjesteh van Wallwijk van Doorn & Co's Uitgeversmaatschappij, 2002), 12.
• 4Layla Diba, interview by Roberto C. Ferrari, Frédérique Baumgartner, and Cydney W. Williams during a private viewing of the portrait at Columbia University in the City of New York, April 26, 2018.
• 5Vogelsang-Eastwood, An Introduction to Qajar Era Dress,18.
• 6Layla Diba, interview, April 26th, 2018.
• 7Vogelsang-Eastwood, An Introduction to Qajar Era Dress, 30.
• 8Vogelsang-Eastwood, An Introduction to Qajar Era Dress, 49.
• 9Layla Diba, interview, April 26, 2018.
• 10Layla Diba, interview by Cydney W. Williams, April 4, 2018, recording.
• 11Layla Diba, interview, April 26, 2018.
• 12Layla Diba, interview, April 4, 2018.
• 13Diba, Royal Persian Paintings: The Qajar Epoch, 1785-1925, 169.
• 14Jennifer Scarce, “Entertainments East and West: Three Encounters between Iranians and Europeans during the Qajar Period (1786-1925),” Iranian Studies 40, no. 4 (2007): 455.
• 15Layla Diba, interview, April 26, 2018.