Within the expansive gift of art from the estate of Lola Szladits, Madagascar Sheep (Fig. 1), a watercolor that entered the Art Properties collection as a work by Jan Stolker (born 1724 in Amsterdam, died 1785 in Rotterdam), stands apart. It features three captivating sheep gathered around a drinking trough and against a background of loosely defined vegetation, with the central animal making eye contact with the viewer. Scenes of domesticated animals involving rustic details, such as the chipped water trough in the foreground, were frequent elements of Dutch art during the eighteenth century. Furthermore, at that time the Netherlands was home to a host of successful watercolorists who achieved crisply articulated details by layering the wet medium instead of exploiting its fluidity. As such, Madagascar Sheep aligns with traditional eighteenth-century Dutch themes and technique. However, upon closer scrutiny, questions of authorship and justification for the title of the work arise.

The meticulousness of Madagascar Sheep immediately speaks to the skill of its artist. Watercolors typically show flowing movement and opaque finish due to the watery component, and these characteristics can be seen in the background foliage and sky. The sheep themselves take up much of the work’s composition, and their high degree of definition made Dr. Linda Wolk-Simon consider the possibility of a secondary medium to achieve such precise lines. 1 However, examination of the watercolor under microscope and infrared light at the Columbia University Libraries Conservation Program showed no sign of any other medium, other than a small amount of gum arabic in the sheep’s eyes to enhance their sparkle. 2 The precision and able handling of the medium therefore points to an expert watercolorist, well-versed in the technique necessary to achieve sharply articulated details.

This is where the attribution to Jan Stolker comes into question, though an inscription bearing his name is visible on the verso of the paper. Stolker did not frequently work with watercolor, typically opting for oil paint and printmaking. If Stolker had the skill in watercolor necessary to create a masterly work such as Madagascar Sheep, one would expect that he used the medium more frequently. Not only is material evidence of other watercolors in his extant oeuvre scant, but Stolker was an artist who enjoyed measuring himself against great masters such as Rembrandt and Jan Steen by copying their work, and his oeuvre is almost entirely composed of portraits rather than scenes of animals. 3 In Madagascar Sheep, each animal is individualized through a unique stare and nuanced characteristics, such as fur patterns, facial features, and curled horns. This is not the work of an artist dabbling in watercolor or in depictions of animals. In other words, there is little evidence that supports an attribution to Jan Stolker.

While the identity of the author of Madagascar Sheep remains a mystery, we can be reasonably certain that the watercolor was made by an artist working within the Dutch-Italianate School. This loosely defined group of artists who were active in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries painted rustic Northern European themes in Italian-style settings and included a vast number of watercolorists who gravitated toward bucolic depictions of nature. Indeed, watercolor was among the most eagerly purchased mediums in eighteenth-century Netherlands, growing out of the seventeenth-century desire among collectors for drawings including color. 4  Watercolor’s appeal for collectors increased its popularity with artists, resulting in schools and societies devoted especially to the medium. 5 The success of both watercolor and the Dutch-Italianate School is in part due to the open art market of eighteenth-century Netherlands. Working outside the commission system, artists explored themes that were of general interest to the art-buying public. Sheep were a popular subject in animal depictions, as they were part of a local tradition of animal husbandry and also conformed to a Christian visual language through their presence in numerous biblical stories. However, Madagascar Sheep may have a more complex meaning, as its mysterious title suggests.

The proper noun “Madagascar” that appears in the title of the watercolor does not refer to the breed depicted, which is most likely a Western European breed typical of Spain or the Netherlands. While there is some suggestion that Madagascar sheep might be a niche breed not widely known or popular outside of the island, there are many elements that indicate that the sheep portrayed here are not of this variety. Almost all African sheep breeds have short hair and floppy ears, two critical physical attributes of thermoregulation in warm climates. 6 Furthermore, the Madagascar breed is part of the “Fat-tailed” subspecies, which have, as the name suggests, distinctively wide and long fat tails. It would be curious to depict the breed and not show its most distinctive physical attribute. Finally, the animals are described as having small or no horns, whereas our sheep have long, curled horns more typical of a ram. 7  Kyle Hetzel at the San Francisco Zoo has concluded that these are Merino sheep, prized for their wool and perhaps introduced to Madagascar via the Spanish. At the time of the watercolor’s completion, the Portuguese had a heavy presence in Madagascar, and the Spanish may have used Merino sheep as trading goods on the island. The Spanish had just recently allowed for the export of their prized Merino sheep, which prior to 1723 was a crime punishable by death. 8 With Spain and the Netherlands united from 1556 to 1716, sheep’s importance to Spain extended to the Dutch economy; this may explain why a Dutch artist would choose to depict the animals.

Pastoral scenes such as Madagascar Sheep were something of a Dutch specialty when Stolker was active as an artist, tapping into national pride and rootedness to the land. Stolker did not participate in this trend, but Adriaen van de Velde, another Dutch artist, did. Van de Velde (1636-1672) was a Dutch Golden Age artist who made a name for himself through his hyper-naturalistic depictions of animals within their local landscape and was even hired by other artists to provide animal and figural details to their paintings. Van de Velde was particularly noted for his ability to capture emotion and specificity of animals, which he achieved through sketching them from life. 9 His studies for larger works show his tender portrayals, indicating a sensitivity to both animal physiognomy and psychology. Van de Velde’s works further demonstrate an understanding of human interactions with animals. When considering the placement of the sheep in Madagascar Sheep, where the animals seemingly include us in their “conversation,” the artist’s ability to create a relationship between the human viewer and animal subject stands out. The viewer of this work is not a passive recipient of the art, but rather positioned equally to the sheep to meet their gaze.

Prominently displayed in the bottom lefthand corner, van de Velde’s signature, A.V.V.F., is written amidst the vegetal background. The “F” stands for the Latin word “fecit” (“made this”), a typical addition to his signature in the many forms it took (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). However, Madagascar Sheep betrays only superficial similarities to van de Velde’s art. As Dr. Bart Cornelis, the foremost expert on van de Velde, has suggested, someone may have added this signature to signal that the work or theme reminded them of van de Velde, without necessarily implying that it was by the hand of the artist. 10 Collectors sometimes added a signature to unsigned works in an attempt to simply remember the artist they thought the work was by or after. However, it may also have been added deceptively to try and fetch a higher price through the inclusion of a relatively famous artist’s signature. 11 In any case, the simple, all block, capital letters (Fig. 4) are easier to include than a cursive signature, and therefore cannot be taken as a reliable method of identifying the true author of this work. 12 Further research, including sales records, would be necessary to explain why van de Velde’s signature is included, and if this work was ever formally attributed to him. Regardless, it appears unlikely that Madagascar Sheep is by his hand.  

Investigation into medium, authorship, subject matter, and inscriptions, informed by the expertise of different professionals, has advanced our knowledge of Madagascar Sheep. Recently, a receipt from the New York framing shop, Herbert E. Feist: Restorer and FrameMaker, was uncovered in the Art Properties collection. It is dated November 9, 1968, indicating that the Szladits purchased the work before that date. Furthermore, the receipt reads “Gouache / Madagaskar Sheep after Adrian van de Velde by Jan Stolker 1724 - 1785" and thus informs us that the work was purchased as a known copy after van de Velde. Though provenance and location of sale remain an unanswered question, further research may help us connect these dots and uncover the mysteries Madagascar Sheep holds.

Thank you to the many scholars who lent their expertise to this project. Dr. Linda Wolk-Simon, Kyle Hetzel, and Dr. Alexis Hagadorn and her team all contributed their insights and expertise without which this project could not have happened. I would like to extend a special thank you to Dr. Bart Cornelis, whose rapid responses to multiple inquiries guided my understanding of Adrien Van de Velde’s contribution to the art world.

• 1Wolk-Simon, Linda. Visiting Professor at New York University’s Institute of Fine Arts. Class discussion, February 3, 2023.
• 2Hagadorn, Alexis. Conservator and Head of the Columbia University Libraries Conservation Program. Class discussion, February 23, 2023.
• 3Benisovich, Michel N. Notes sur Jan Stolker. Oud Holland, Vol. 61. (Brill Publishing, 1946)
• 4Nelson, Kristi. Dutch Drawing and Watercolors from the Kharkiv Art Museum. (Taft Museum, Cincinnati, 1997), 7.
• 5Nelson notes several institutions which promoted watercolors including, but not limited to, (Arti et Amicitiae in Amsterdam, De Hollandsche Teken Maatschappij, and the Belgian Watercolor Society), 8-9.
• 6Hetzel, Kyle. Assistant Curator at the San Francisco Zoo. Email correspondence, April 11, 2023.
• 7Mason, I.L. A World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds, Types and Varieties. C.A.B International, (1996).
• 8Hetzel, Kyle. Assistant Curator at the San Francisco Zoo. Email correspondence, April 11, 2023
• 9Loughman, John. Adriaen van de Velde: Amsterdam and London. The Burlington Magazine, 158: 1364. (November 2016), 4.
• 10Cornelis, Bart. Email correspondence, April 13, 2023.
• 11Cornelis, Bart. Email correspondence, July 31 , 2023.
• 12Cornelis, Bart. Email correspondence, July 31 , 2023.