Historical Context | Durham Cathedral | Briefing | Professor Stalley

Early Architecture in Irreland & Romanesque Architecture in England

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Historical Context | Durham Cathedral and Anglo-Norman Romanesque
Professor Roger Stalley

Durham was started 27 years after the the Norman conquest of England, an event which had a revolutionary impact on English society and on the English church: in the aftermath of the conquest, dioceses were re-organized, with the site of some bishoprics being moved to well-established centres of Norman power (Dorchester to Lincoln, for example, and Elmham to Norwich). Most of the major positions in the church were filled by men from overseas (not just from Normandy), giving the English church a far more 'international' outlook than it had had before.

These changes in administration and personnel led to the reconstruction of many of the English cathedrals and abbey churches: Canterbury, for example was rebuilt (c. 1070–1077) on the model of St Etienne of Caen in Normandy, where archbishop Lanfranc had previously served as abbot. Not everyone applauded the energies devoted to reconstruction, however. Wulfstan, bishop of Worcester, one of the few Anglo-Saxons to retain high office, gave the following lament: 'wretches that we are, we destroy the work of saints because we think in our pride that we can do better'.

The prosperity of the Norman kingdom of England brought a new wave of building in the years around 1090. Huge monastic churches were begun at Gloucester (1089) and Ely (1091), the cathedral of Canterbury was enlarged (1096), and a new cathedral church was founded at Norwich (1096). Durham, which was started in 1093, falls into this group of buildings.

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At the time of the conquest, Durham was the site of a small community of canons, which traced its origin back to the ancient monastery of Lindisfarne, the island monastery situated off the coast of Northumbria. Forced to flee from the Vikings in 875, the community occupied several different sites, before moving to Durham in 995.

At the time of the conquest, Durham was the site of a small community of canons, which traced its origin back to the ancient monastery of Lindisfarne, the island monastery situated off the coast of Northumbria. Forced to flee from the Vikings in 875, the community occupied several different sites, before moving to Durham in 995.

The early history of Lindisfarne was intimately associated with St. Cuthbert (d.687), whose relics formed the most precious possessions of the community. One of the most sumptuously illuminated books of the early middle ages, the Lindisfarne Gospels, was prepared on the island in honour of St Cuthbert sometime before 721. Along with the saint's relics, this was another item which found its way to Durham (It is now in the British Library in London).

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Early Church Building in Durham
There are various historical references to the first churches at Durham: these include a 'little church of the branches', erected when the monks first arrived, the 'white church' of 998, and a later 'major ecclesia' with east and west towers (which may or may not have been identical with the 'white church'). The 'major ecclesia' was situated on the site of the present cloisters, and a substantial section of it must have remained in place while the new Romanesque cathedral was under construction.

Before the Romanesque rebuilding began, a castle had been founded for the bishop, to the north of the cathedral. This was erected in the time of Walcher, the first Norman appointment to the bishopric of Durham (1071–80), though Walcher himself came from Lorraine not Normandy. The castle included a motte with a wooden tower on the top, various residential halls, and a stone built chapel which still survives (c. 1072–88). Walcher evidently had plans to replace the regular canons with Benedictine monks and, at the time of his death (he was assassinated in 1080), he had begun to construct domestic buildings in preparation for their arrival.

The key figure in the foundation of the Romanesque cathedral was William of St Calais (1080–96). He had previously served as prior of St Calais in Maine (France) and then as abbot of St Vincent at Le Mans. He was much employed in the service of King William I, and was one of the officials involved in drawing up the Domesday Book. He re-organised the monastery at Durham in 1083 by introducing Benedictine monks from Jarrow and Monkwearmouth, (as envisaged by his predecessor Walcher) bringing a more disciplined approach to religious life than had existed before.

William's first architectural priorities were directed at the claustral buildings of the monks, and these included a new refectory, built c.1087–90. Before the bishop could embark on the cathedral, however, he was forced to flee the country, having been implicated in a rebellion against King William II. He was in exile for three years in Normandy (1088–91). Shortly after his return to Durham, arrangements were put in place for the start of work on the new cathedral.

The historical sources make it clear that William of St Calais paid for the building out of his own resources as bishop. Following his death in 1096 there was a three year interregnum, when the monks themselves struggled to keep things going out of their income.

William of St Calais' successor was Ranulph Flambard, a Norman from Bayeux, who had started out as a clerk in royal service. He had previously been head of the priory of Christ Church (Hampshire) and he 'purchased' the bishopric of Durham for the sum of £1,000. Renowned for his ability to accumulate wealth, he held the see for almost thirty years (1099–1128), during which time the fabric was brought close to completion.